The Portray of African-American women in 1960s Research Paper

The Portray of African-American women in 1960s - Research Paper Example John F. Kennedy was elected president in 1961 and he became a president who was very much dedicated to the protection and establishment of civil rights for all Americans (Zeitz, 2006). Two years after he was elected, Martin Luther King, Jr. gave his ‘I Have a Dream’ speech, and in the process, inspired many African Americans and civil rights groups to firmly seek the equal protection of their rights, regardless of their skin color (Zeitz, 2006). When President Lyndon Johnson took over as president after Kennedy’s assassination, he also firmly pressed support for civil rights laws, and in 1964, the Civil Rights Act was signed by Johnson. This law made racial segregation in America legally actionable (Marwick, 1998). A year after the Civil Rights Act was signed, the National Voting Rights Act was also passed into law, and this law also ensured that discrimination in voting practices would become legally actionable (Marwick, 1998). Towards the end of the 1960s, Presi dent Richard Nixon would soon take over and the Vietnam War would also take center stage in American issues and politics. Nevertheless, the legal foundations for civil rights were laid out during the 1960s (Marwick, 1998). For African-Americans, it marked a time when they were finally able to gain full equal and legal status as their white counterparts. For African-American women in the 1960s, it also marked a period of transition. The Emancipation Proclamation during the 1860s was meant to free African-Americans from slavery, however, this did not necessarily grant the African-Americans equal rights under the law (Stack, 1974). They were still very much discriminated against by general society, and not allowed the same rights and privileges as the whites. The Jim Crow Laws of 1876 also passed segregation laws for the black communities, separating them from the white communities (Stack, 1974). These laws also indicated where the African-Americans were supposed to live. These practic es would however soon gain the ire of the African-Americans as gradually many of them, along with civil rights activists sought equal rights for all Americans regardless of race (Quintard, 2003). The decision of the Supreme Court in 1954 on the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas also started the ball rolling for the desegregation in schools. However, major strides towards racial desegregation on a wider scale were still not seen (Quintard, 2003). Anthropologist Carol Stack in her book ‘All Our Kin’ focused on what she refers to as Jackson Harbor in order to examine the discrimination practices against the African Americans (Stack, 1974). Stack (1974) discusses that in Jackson Harbor, in Mississippi, poverty and racial discrimination played a huge part in romantic inclinations and relations. For one, women usually viewed men in a stereotypical fashion – behaving bad, drinking, being violent, being involved in crimes, and the like (Stack, 1974). Women al so saw themselves as the more reliable individuals, and the fact that they had access to welfare made them more formidable individuals than their male counterparts. Stack (1974) discusses how within the community, the African-American women possessed equal rights in relation to African American men. However as far as the bigger world is concerned, the white-dominated American society through its racist and sexist practices had great control over the lives of African American women. In effect, these women had the power to make the decisions for their families and themselves,

EC 417 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

EC 417 - Essay Example He stresses the point that economists and the World Bank which he represent, have great concerns about improved standards of living for poor countries which would enable people in villages like Gulvera to live better. This Easterly (2002) indicates would prevent them from being hungry and diseased. He indicates that increases in GDP per capita would translate into rising income for the poor, lifting them out of poverty. Easterly (2002) then uses the situation in Lahore to look at a number of problems facing the poorest countries compared to the richest. These include infant mortality, diseases and nutritional deficiencies. Easterly (2002) also provides an explanation of the higher infant mortality rates and provides information on the low cost per dose of oral rehydration and vaccination that would prevent these deaths and diseases; and exclaimed that despite the low cost, the extent of poverty is significant. Easterly (2002) sought to emphasize the point that wealth has positive imp lications for one’s health and indicates that findings suggest a relationship between infant mortality and economic growth which implies that the high death rate of infants in Africa in 1990 could have been prevented if the standards of living in was just a little higher than it was. In terms of assessing the poorest of the poor the Easterly points to how they are treated in the poorest countries of the world by the poor themselves and how they are described. Some of the countries mentioned are Tombouctou, commonly referred to as Timbuktu in Mali which is one of the poorest countries in the world and where a 1987 survey showed that 41% of children die before reaching age five. Easterly (2002) also gives some startling statistics on the calorie intake of the poorest 5th countries and the richest 5th countries, and notes the absence of famine in the richest countries while a 1/4th of the poorest countries faced famines in the last three decades. Easterly also looked at the oppr ession of the poor worldwide, child labor which is ignored in 88% of the countries, child prostitution and the oppression of women which takes many forms including wife beating in Jamaica. Easterly (2002) then provides a definition of poverty as: â€Å"that part of the population with incomes below $1 per day†. Easterly (2002) stresses the point that a fast growth rate will lead to fast poverty reduction as economic contraction goes along with increased poverty. Easterly (2002) also gave examples of poverty increasing significantly with severe recession in countries in West Africa as well as the effects of economic growth and economic contractions in Asia. Easterly also points to World Bank statistics that found that a change in the average income of a society led to a proportionate change in the poorest 20% of the population and suggests that the poor could improve their standard of living through the redistribution of income and economic growth. In concluding the Chapter Ea sterly points to the quest of improving the welfare of poor and re-emphasizes the importance of this to the next generation. Chapter 2 – Aid for Investment Easterly starts with a quote, this time from Shakespeare’s â€Å"Two Gentlemen of Verona† as to how something becomes a habit. The focus this time was on

Methodology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Methodology - Essay Example The purpose of this study is to understand the position of small and medium enterprises in Indian Textile Industry. Also, to get more information about the status of Indian Textile Industries and role of government in its current position. During the 19th century, there were many paradigms have taken birth, the reason behind that was the increasing trend in social sciences research. Positivism paadigms and anti-positivism paradigms are the two main paradigms used for verification of theoretical propositions. Accourding to Saunder (2007), paradigms is the research philosophy that utilizes the idea of both the positivist and the phenomenologist. It pertain a practical approach, incorporate different perception to facilitate in data collection dn interpretation. For this research study non positivisim paradigms has been selected. The research philosophy is intended with the investigation of interpretive epistemology as the topic will depend on conducting research among people thoughts, opinions and experiences which will be shown through the questionnaires’ responses and the interviews’ answers. The Inductive approach will be used in this research which is part of the Subjectivism research approach as the investigations will depend on building theory through small sample of people perceptions regarding the situation that will be discussed to understand the reality of the study and to get their feelings about what is going on in order to identify better the nature of the problem and analysing those data. The results will give some solutions for the study along with evidences that will provide a clear picture for the target people to accomplish their goals. The primary data is to be collected by conducting field research that involves face to face interviews, surveys, questionnaires and focused group interviews. Primary research involves the usage

Returns to Education in UK Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words - 1

Returns to Education in UK - Essay Example This study has analysed returns to education in the UK. This was done using the BHPS data from 1991-2008 by using an OLS regression model adapted from previous studies. The dependent variable was logarithm of hourly wage while the predictor variable tested was years of schooling, controlling for other factors. The control variables were age, sex, race and region. Diagnostic tests was conducted to check for heteroskedascity and also the presence of serial correlations and both were found not to affect the model hence the regression was run. The analysis shows that the number of years in schooling had a positive and significant effect on the logarithm of hourly wage (about 8% per year of schooling) which suggests that there were positive returns to education in the sample. This is consistent with a number of studies that have analysed the returns to education. From the R-squared results, the model accounted for 24% of the variance in hourly wages. Thus, the regression did not explain most of the variance in hourly wages but points to the fact that the number of years of schooling is a good predictor of returns in education. However, we cannot rule out endogeneity (race results) and given low overall significance of regression.

Why Byzantine Economy Remained One of the Most Powerful in Europe Through Early Middle Ages Essay Example for Free

Why Byzantine Economy Remained One of the Most Powerful in Europe Through Early Middle Ages Essay â€Å"Why Byzantine economy remained one of the most powerful in Europe through Early Middle Ages? † The Byzantine cconomy was one of the largest systems throughout Europe and the Mediterannean for many centuries. Both local and international trade were of huge importance for the Byzantine Empire. Lower class, including traders, depended on the upper class. Their need of the foreign goods in order to stay in Local trade was much less popular. Throughout the fourth and sixth centuries, long-distance trade was operating successfully, until the plague appeared, which killed around one-third of the citizens in the Byzantine Empire, and ruined the trade networks. The Byzantine economy had recovered in the tenth century, and Italian merchants contributed to its steady growth in the Mediteranian through the tenth and eleventh centuries (Katz 27-39). To begin, the decades of instability as well as foreign invasions mostly by Germanic tribes, led to an establishment of a new military, political, and administrative framework under Diocletian (284-305), and Constantine I, which also led to a new economic power in Byzantine and Constantinopole. From 395 to 476, the Empire was in a big crisis until the Germans left the territory. Emperor Justinian I provided the growth of the economy, but also the growth period ended with the â€Å"Justinian Plague† that broke out in Egypt in 542, and reduced the population in all provinces of the empire. The â€Å"Justinian Plague† continued until the 8th century. At the same time, political disadvantage occurred with the warfare against Sasanian Persia in 6th and 7th century, which had a really bad impact on Byzantine economy. In the 7th century, after the death of Prophet Mohammed, the Arabs started to invade eastern parts of the empire, and the Byzantine was still weak from the war with Persia, and until 642, most of the revenue of the empire was gone, but due to their unbreakable economic system, the empire survived again. After the survival of Arabian attacks, Byzantium appeared as a completely new power that was financed by a new effective tax system. In the 9th century, conditions in the empire largely improved, which led to an increase of security and economic growth. After that, Byzantium was a completely new empire (Laiou 9-28). The Byzantine economy was based on money provided by taxes which enabled government to receive huge budgets, which is enormous even nowadays. The well organized economy of the empire allowed it to survive dangers of money shortage. In the 950 and 1200 Byzanine economy grew rapidly, which led to a creation of aristocracy, which was a basic link in the state system. Public expenditures were primarily annual payments in gold to state functionaries, military, Constantinopolitan and provincials. However, a desire for the coinage grew with the growth of the economy, but actually it was not easy for Byzantium to meet the standards for coinage, and it appeared that coins were in a short supply once again in Constantinopole. This suggested a sustained thirst for gold to service the state economy. From the 4th to the end of the 6th century people were using coinage called â€Å"solidi†, from 7th to 11th century â€Å"nominsata†, and from 12th to 14th century â€Å"hyperpyra†. In 540 annual revenue of the empire was 11,300,000 solidi which was more annual revenue than in any other year from 4th to 6th century (Morrison 900-1000). The 6th century economy had a power that accompanied the whole Mediterranean, followed by Justinians conquests. In the period of his reign, the economy was full of activity and exchange, that lasted until middle of the sixth century. The trade networks expanded, and Byzantine trade developed as far as England to the west and to the east,including the Red Sea and beyond as far as India. A significant economic undertaking also represented the construction of cities in the fifth and sixth century and new ways of architecture and infrastructre. (Morrison 172). However, trade was more developed in the eastern part of the empire. For the international trade, the Byzantine Empire used well-organized systems of Roman roads and bridges and adapted them for their own use. The resurfacing of the roads and bridges and well organized infrastructure allowed the traders to import and export fresh food, use places to sleep and eat, and just have a good trading experience. According to Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos, it was necessary to know which roads were narrow or steep, and at the same time unsafe for transport, and which ones were good. The most important road in the empire was the â€Å"Imperial Rode,† which ran from the northwest to the southeast of the empire. The Black Sea connection was also of importance, which was the connection path to the Asia, and its exporters (Avramea 57-90). The base of the Byzantine economy was agriculture. The interest of the state is that agriculture keeps the state revenue flowing in. Agriculture was also important for gathering as many gold coins and returning a portion to the state treasury. Paying taxes was the best way to prove the ownership of the land. The seaside areas were featuring vines, sea crops, and production of lives, which played an important role for the Byzantine Empire. The manpower or â€Å"the musscle of the peassants† was also a big significance for the empire, because the economy would have been useless without the manpower. However, the imports were mainly constructed of the common goods that kept the business including, oil, wool, metals, spices, and jewelery that were imported mostly from China, India, and Persia. Byzantium took care of the timely arrival of the goods to both eastern and western parts of the empire. The Byzantines considered land a common resource, not to be bought or sold, but it is valuable only if the men were invesing in it. The biggest loss of the inhabitants and land was in 541 due to the plague, where Constantinopole lost 40 % of its inhabitants. It affected both cities and countryside, as well as the routes of trading and communication, and significantly shrank the economic production. In the 9th century after the plague, peace was slowly reestablished and territories started to increase (Bryer 101-113). From the other side, Constantinople was presented as a very wealthy capital which served as propaganda for the foreigners that came to visit it, as well as for their own citizens. Constantinopole was fully decorated with the foreign imported material such as silk or gold. The 10th century was one of the most powerful in the Byzantine Empire history, and through that period, Constantinopole was the biggest centre of the international trade, with merchants mostly from Italy, Syria, and Bulgaria. In the middle of the 10th century international trade with Muslims became very popular, while in the 11th and 12th century economy of exchange took place. Before the ninth and tenth century, Arabs were invading Egypt and Syria, which ruined the Byzantine trade, but since the population size increased in ninth and tenth century, production and trade also increased, especially the demand for grain. The shipping was important for the international trade, so good quality of the ships was needed. One of the popular brands was â€Å"dromon†, which followed the Roman shipbuilding tradition. The big change in the technology of the sea transport came from the storage jar, which gave way to the wooden barrel, which overall reduced the weight of the ship, allowing for more things to be transferred from one side to another (Avramea 55-89). Coinage was the basic form of the money in the Byzantine Empire, but even though businessmen were very skillful, they were not capable to speed up the circulation of the coins through the empire. The gold coinage was mostly used from 7th to the start of 11th century. At the start of 11th century, silver and copper coins were circulating more through the monetary system. However, there was a coinage crisis going through many periods, until Alexios I Komnenos put the end to a coinage crisis. His reign was based on his family as a centre of government. His reign was known for power and wealth, and Komnenian policies enhanced the importance of the Byzantine ports and cities. The entirely new coinage released from the economy of state helped the massive expansion in subventions of land-based tax privileges. These subventions strengthen local market economies, which encouraged peasants to develop the production. The state collected the taxes in cash, but they used excess to pay off obiligations to the state. These grants had also grown significantly in the 11th century and Alexios Komnenos used it as a reward for the military and his family. As the state mostly depended on aristocrats, there were always the difference between upper and lower class, and as much as aristocrats were giving to the state, they were also increasingly working for their own interest. The best example of that system is shown in the Komnenos family. The main interest of the aristocrats was to benefit from the states’ weaknesses, but not to weaken the state, which would deprive the poor of access to the resources and stop aristocrats seeking benefits by competing with each other (Lopez 209-234). Even though the estate and the village competed with each other about the territory because there was a big amount of land available, the estate and the village also need each other. The estate needed land for farming, such as growing crops or raising life. From the other side, the village needed the land for spreading their trading facility as well as commerce. Within the Byzantine Empire, regardless of where the person lived, the same as in the Roman Empire, men were in charge of almost every part of their property, considering cultivation of the land and other physical activities which were including hard work that women usually could not do. Women were in charge of children and the life inside the house (Laiou 45-56). During the period from 9th to 11th century, it appeared that the economy was almost completely monetized. All the taxes had to be payed in gold, while in the other countries such as Bulgaria, tax was paid in kind. The organization of the fiscal services evolved in the 9th century. There were various offices with employees that were writing documents and accounting books. The tenth and eleventh centuries also viewed a development of â€Å"charitable houses,† institutions that were using revenue for financing the upper aristocratic class, which is another example of the power of the upper class and the Byzantine Empire economy (Oikonomides 577-581). Even though the Byzantine economy had ups and downs like any other economy in any other system, the positive thing is that through the longer period it remained strong and powerful. The 6th century and Justinian and start of the 11th century and Komnenians’ reign were the periods when the ecomony reached its climax and showed the world its characteristics and endurance. Even in modern times, it appeared difficult for many economies to reach the Byzantine economic level of wealth and strength.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Fetal Alcohol Syndrome is a series of birth defects such as physical, mental, behavioral and learning problems caused by the mother drinking alcohol during pregnancy. Kenneth Jones and David Smith at the University of Washington in Seattle officially identified Fetal Alcohol Syndrome in 1973 (Golden 1). The exact reasons certain fetuses are affected and others are not, is not fully understood. CDC reports state that 0.2 to 1.5 per 1000 babies are born each year in the United States with alcohol related birth defects (CDC 1). Fetal Alcohol Syndrome can be prevented with education. Even small changes in education and behavior can reduce the risk of women giving birth to babies with fetal alcohol syndrome. Women have been drinking for years not knowing or understanding the effects that alcohol had on their babies. Some women that drink do not even know they are pregnant and may unknowingly and unintentionally cause damage to the unborn and developing baby. Then there are the women that are addicted to alcohol. The drive can be stronger for the alcohol than for the health of herself or her unborn baby. Education, behavior modification and detoxification are areas of change needed to help with prevention of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. When alcohol is consumed it is absorbed into the mothers bloodstream and passed through the placenta and into the central nervous system of the fetus. Alcohol depresses the central nervous system of the fetus. Alcohol is a potent teratogen. A teratogen is any substance which has been proven to cause birth defects. It is not fully known if it is the alcohol or acetaldehyde, which is a breakdown product from alcohol, which causes birth defects. How the damage occurs is not completely understood, but alcohol does create a glucose and oxygen deficit for the fetus (Spong 1). There is increased risk for miscarriage, stillbirth, and birth defects in women that drink, especially in the first trimester. Also, the amount of alcohol intake can multiply the chances of these effects. The organs of the fetus begin developing between three to ten weeks. Alcohol may affect the developing organs such as the heart, brain and central nervous system. Because of the effect on the brain, alcohol can cause mental retardation. Damage to the brain can happen anytime during the pregnancy since the brain develops for all nine months and beyond birth (Belfort 2006). The effects of the alcohol can vary in range of severity and parts of the anantomy. Some babies are born with growth deficiencies due to the alcohol consumption during pregnancy. They are short in length, under weight, and have small heads (Wong). Facial abnormalities include small eye openings, drooping eyelids, skin folds across the inner corners of the eyes, a flattened or missing bridge of the nose, underdeveloped philtrum, thin upper lip, cleft lip, and cleft palate (Wong). There are major organ defects, especially of the heart such as septal defects, tetralogy of Fallot, and patent ductus arteriosus (Wong). They may have problems with their respiratory system such as apnea, pulmonary hypertension and SIDS. Renal abnormalities include aplastic, dysplastic, hypoplastic kidneys, horseshoe kidneys, ureteral duplications, and hydronephrosis (Wong 844). They may have joint and limb abnormalities. Some of the skeletal abnormalities are restriction of movement, altered palmar crease pa tterns, hypoplastic nails, shortened digits, radionulnar synostosis, flexion contractures, pectus excavaum and carinatum, Klippei-Feil syndrome, hemivertebrae, and scoliosis (Fry-Johnson 42) . Malformation of the Eustachian tube, conductive hearing loss and nuerosensory hearing loss are some auditory defects. They tend to have chronic ear infections. They have a tendency to be more susceptible to infections (Wong 844). Malnutrition is a risk factor for women that drink and can lead to birth defects. Malnutrition can cause low birth weight, growth retardation, fetal damage, and is an increased risk for spontaneous abortion and stillbirth. There are several reasons for the malnutrition. First, alcoholics prefer alcohol over food therefore the intake of needed nutrients is poor. Then there is reduce absorption and metabolism of nutrients. Women that drink can be deficient in many vitamins and minerals such as vitamin B6, folic acid, riboflavin, thiamine, vitamin K, iron, magnesium and zinc. Deficiency in vitamin B6 can result in a clubfoot, cleft lip and palate. Folate acid deficiencies are related to neural tube defects and orofacial defects. Riboflavin deficiency may affect failure to grow, thrive and develop. Lack of thiamine has been found to cause heart defects. Deformities related to vitamin K deficiency are shortened fingers, cupped ears, flat nasal bridges, and underdeveloped nose, mouth and mid face. Babies that are born iron deficient are often smaller and shorter. Deficiency in zinc has been linked to impaired growth and development. Zinc deficiency has been related to lower immunity in infants and abnormalities of the nervous system that lead to learning difficulties and mental retardation (Anderson 3). According to an article by Mary J. OConnor in the American Journal of Drug and Alcohol abuse, children with fetal alcohol syndrome may show cognitive and attention deficits, increased activity levels, problems in inhibition and state regulation, perseverative behavior, and expressive language and motor problems. These problems may last into and throughout adulthood. They may have difficulties such as bonding in infants and depression in 4-6 year olds. There have been reports of depression, anxiety, psychosis, somatic complaints, delinquency, hyperactivity and sleep disorders. OConnor also reports in a study done on 473 people that were prenatally exposed to alcohol 44% were diagnosed with major depressive disorder, 40% had psychotic disorders, and 20% had bipolar disorders(Womens Health1). Studies on prenatal alcohol exposure and relation to IQ show varying severities. It was noted that some children for unknown reasons are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol. An a rticle in Journal of School Health by Jennifer H. Green reports on a review of studies done showing an average IQ for people with fetal alcohol syndrome at 65.73 with a range of 20-120 (Green 1). Fetal alcohol syndrome is a preventable problem. The public needs to be educated on the effects alcohol can have on an unborn child and that no amount of alcohol is safe during pregnancy. The effects from alcohol ingestion during pregnancy can range in severity and last a lifetime. Healthcare worker must educate and advise all females within childbearing years of the potential harm to the fetus. During pregnancy it is never too late to stop and reduce the risk to the fetus. Ultimately it is up to the mother to follow through with these warnings and advice. Work Citied Anderson, Mark. Historical Perspective Prenatal Nutrition and Birth Defects. Selen River Press, 2008. World Wide Web. July 24, 2008. http://www.seleneriverpress.com/media/pdf_docs/36_BirthDefectsandNutrition. Belfort, Mandy. Department of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine, Childrens Hospital Boston, Boston, MA. , Healthline Pregnancy Guide, February 2006 World Wide Web : July 26, 2008. http://www.healthline.com/yodocontent/pregnancy/premature-baby-brain-problems.html Center for Diease Control and Prevention.(2006) Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder. World Wide Web: July 24, 2008.http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fas/fasask.htm#how Fry-Johnson, Yvonne W. M.D.(2005). Fetal Alcohol Syndrome â€Å"Its a Faith Walk†¦Ã¢â‚¬  World Wide Web: July 25, 2008. http://www.sefasrtc.org/presentations/Its%20a%20Faith%20Walk%2031705Fetal%20Alcohol%20Syndrome.pdf Golden, Janet. 2005. Message in a Bottle The Making of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Green, Jennifer H.  Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: understanding the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure and supporting students.Journal of School Health77.3  (March 2007):  103(6).General OneFile.  Gale.  BREVARD COUNTY LIBRARY SYSTEM.  24 July 2008 http://find.galegroup.com/ips/start.do?prodId=IPS. Prenatal alcohol exposure has effects far beyond fetal alcohol syndrome.Womens Health Weekly(Dec 9, 2004):  75.General OneFile.  Gale.  BREVARD COUNTY LIBRARY SYSTEM.  24 July 2008 http://find.galegroup.com/ips/start.do?prodId=IPS. Work Citied Spong CY (2006) Protection against Prenatal Alcohol-Induced Damage. PLoS Med 3(4): e196 doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030196 Wong, Donna L., Hockenberry, Marilyn J., Perry, Shannon E., and Lowdermilk, Deitra Leonard. (2006). Maternal Child Nursing Care (3rd edition). St. Louis: Mosby Elsevier.

Comparative Analysis of Rank Techniques

Comparative Analysis of Rank Techniques Abstract There is paramount web data available in the form of web pages on the World Wide Web (WWW). So whenever a user makes a query, a lot of search results having different web links corresponding to a user’s query are generated. Out of which only some are relevant while the rest are irrelevant. The relevancy of a web page is calculated by search engines using page ranking algorithms. Most of the page ranking algorithm use web structure mining and web content mining to calculate the relevancy of a web page. Most of the ranking algorithms which are given in the literature are either link or content oriented which do not consider user usage trends. The Algorithm called Page Rank Algorithm was introduced by Google in beginning. It was considered a standard page rank because as no other algorithm of page rank was in existence. Later extensions of page rank algorithm were incorporated along with different variations like considering weights as well as visits of links. This paper presents the comparison among original page rank algorithm as well as its various variations. Keywords: inlinks, outlinks, search engine, web mining, World Wide Web (WWW), PageRank, Weighted page rank, VOL I. Introduction World Wide Web is a vast resource of hyperlinked and a variety of information including text, image, audio, video and metadata. It is anticipated that WWW has expanded by about 2000% since its progression and is doubling in magnitude with a gap of six to ten months. With the swift expansion of information on the WWW and mounting requirements of users, it is becoming complicated to manage web information and comply with the user needs. So users have to employ some information retrieval techniques to find, extract, filter and order the desired information. The technique used filters the web page according to query generated by the user and create an index. This indexing is related to the rank of web page. Lower the index value, higher will be the rank of the web page. 1. Data Mining over Web 1.1 Web Mining Data mining, which facilitates the knowledge discovery from large data sets by extracting potentially new useful patterns in the form of human understandable knowledge and structuring the same, can also be applied over the web. The application being named Web Mining thus becomes a technique for extracting useful information from a large, unstructured, heterogeneous data store. Web mining is quite a immense area with dozens of developments and technological enhancements. 1.2. Web Mining Categories According to literature, there are three categories of web mining: Web Content Mining (WCM), Web Structure Mining (WSM) and Web Usage Mining (WUM) WCM includes the web page information. In it, the actual content pages whether semi structured hypertext or multimedia information are used for searching purposes. WSM uses the central part linkage that flows through the entire web. The linkage of web content is called hyperlink. This hyperlinked structure is used for ranking the retrieved web pages on the basis of query generated by the user. WUM returns the dynamic results with respect to users’ navigation. This methodology uses the server logs ( the logs that are created during user navigation via searching. WUM is also called as Web Log Mining because it extracts knowledge from usage logs. 1.2 Page Rank Algorithm (By Google) This is the original PageRank algorithm. It was postulated by Lawrence Page and Sergey Brin. The formula is: where is the PageRank of page A is the PageRank of pages Ti which link to page A is the number of outbound links on page Ti d is a damping factor having value between 0 and 1. The PageRank algorithm is used to determine the rank of a web page individually. This algorithm is not meant to rank a web site. Moreover, the PageRank of a page say A, is recursively defined by the PageRanks of those pages which link to page A. The PageRank of pages which link to page A does not influence the PageRank of page A consistently. In PageRank algorithm, the PageRank of a page T is always weighted by the number of outbound links C(T) on page T. It means, more outbound links a page T has, the less will page A benefit from a link to it on page T. The weighted PageRank of pages Ti is then added up. But an additional inbound link for page A will always increase page As PageRank. In the end, the sum of the weighted PageRanks of all pages is multiplied with a damping factor d which can be set between 0 and 1. Thus, the extend of PageRank benefit for a page by another page linking to it is reduced. They deem PageRank as a genre of user behaviour, where a surfer clicks on links at random irrespective of content. The random surfer visits a web page with a certain probability which is solely given by the number of links on that page. Thus, one pages PageRank is not completely passed on to a page it links to, but is divided by the number of links on the page. So, the probability for the random surfer reaching one page is the sum of probabilities for the random surfer following links to this page. Now, this probability is diminish by the damping factor d. Sometimes, user doesnot move straight to the links of a page, instead the user jumps to some other page randomly. This probability for the random surfer is calculated by the damping factor d (also called as degree of probability having value between 0 and 1). Regardless of inbound links, the probability for the random surfer jumping to a page is always (1-d), so a page has always a minimum PageRank. A revised version of the PageRank Algorithm is given by Lawrence Page and Sergey Brin. In this algorithm, the PageRank of page A is given as where N is the total number of all pages on the web. This revised version of the algorithm is basically equivalent the original one. Regarding the Random Surfer Model, this version is the actual probability for a surfer reaching that page after clicking on many links. The sum of all page ranks of all pages will be one by calculating the probability distribution of all web pages. But, these versions of the algorithm do not differ fundamentally from each other. A PageRank which has been calculated by using the second version of the algorithm has to be multiplied by the total number of web pages to get the according PageRank that would have been calculated by using the first version. 1.3 Dangling Nodes A node is called a dangling node if it does not contain any out-going link, i.e., if the out-degree is zero. The hypothetical web graph taken in this paper is having a dangling node i.e. Node D. II Research background Brin and Page (Algorithm: Google Page Rank) The authors came up with an idea to use link structure of the web to calculate rank of web pages. This algorithm is used by Google based on the results produced by keyword based search. It works on the principle that if a web page has significant links towards it, then the links of this page to other pages are also considered imperative. Thus, it depends on the backlinks to calculate the rank of web pages. The page rank is calculated by the formula given in equation 1. (1) Where u represents a web page and represents the page rank of web pages u and v respectively is the set of web pages pointing to u represents the total numbers of outlinks of web page v and c is a factor used for normalization Original PageRank algorithm was modified considering that all users donot follow direct links on web data. Thus, the modified formula for calculating page rank is given in equation 2. (2) Where d is a dampening factor which represent the probability of user using direct links and it can be set between 0 and 1. Wenpu Xing and Ali Ghorbani (Algorithm: Weighted Page Rank) The authors gave this method by extending standard PageRank. It works on the theory that if a page is vital, it has many inlinks and outlinks. Unlike standard PageRank, it does not equally distribute the page rank of a page among its outgoing linked pages. The page rank of a web page is divided among its outgoing linked pages in proportional to the importance or popularity (its number of inlinks and outlinks). , the popularity from the number of inlinks, is calculated based on the number of inlinks of page u and the number of inlinks of all reference pages of page v as given in equation 3. (3) Where and are the number of inlinks of page u and p respectively represents the set of web pages pointed by v. , the popularity from the number of outlinks, is calculated based on the number of outlinks of page u and the number of outlinks of all reference pages of page v as given in equation. 4. (4) Where and are the number of outlinks of page u and p respectively represents the set of web pages pointed by v. The page rank using Weighted PageRank algorithm is calculated by the formula as given in equation 5. (5) Gyanendra Kumar et. al. (Algorithm : Page Rank with Visits of Links (VOL)) This methodology includes the browsing behavior of the user. The prior algorithms were either based on WSM or WCM. But it incluses Page Ranking based on Visits of Links (VOL). It modifies the basic page ranking algorithm by considering the number of visits of inbound links of web pages. It assists to prioritize the web pages on the basis of user’s browsing behavior. Also, the rank values are assigned in proportional to the number of visits of links in this algorithm. The more rank value is assigned to the link which is most visited by user. The Page Ranking based on Visits of Links (VOL) can be calculated by the formula given in equation 6. (6) Where and represent page rank of web pages u and v respectively d is dampening factor B(u) is the set of web pages pointing to u Lu is number of visits of links pointing from v to u TL(v) is the total number of visits of all links from v. Neelam Tyagi and Simple Sharma (Algorithm: Weighted Page Rank Algorithm Based on Number of Visits of Links of Web Page) The authors incorporate Weighted PageRank algorithm and the number of visits of links (VOL). This algorithm consigns more rank to the outgoing links having high VOL. It is based on the inlink popularity ignoring the outlink popularity. In this algorithm, number of visits of inbound links of web pages are taken into consideration in addition the weights of page. The rank of web page using this algorithm can be calculated as given in equation 7. (7) Where represent page rank of web page u and v respectively d is the dampening factor B(u) is the set of web pages pointing to u Lu is number of visits of links pointing from v to u is the total number of visits of all links from v represents the popularity from the number of inlinks of u. Sonal Tuteja (Algorithm: Enhancement in Weighted Page Rank Using Visits of Link (VOL)) The author incorporated i.e. the weight of link(v,u) and calculated based on the number of visits of inlinks of page u. the popularity from the number of visits of outlinks are used to calculate the value of page rank. is the weight of link(v, u) which is calculated based on the number of visits of inlinks of page u and the number of visits of inlinks of all reference pages of page v as given in equation 8. (8) Where and represents the incoming visits of links of page u and p respectively R(v) represents the set of reference pages of page v. is the weight of link(v, u) which is calculated based on the number of visits of outlinks of page u and the number of visits of outlinks of all reference pages of page v as given in equation 9. (9) Where and represents the outgoing visits of links of page u and v respectively R(v) represents the set of reference pages of page v. Now these values are used to calculate page rank using equation (10) (10) Where d is a dampening factor B(u) is the set of pages that point to u WPRVOL (u) and WPRVOL(v) are the rank scores of page u and v respectively represents the popularity from the number of visits of inlinks represents the popularity from the number of visits of outlinks III Numerical analysis of various page rank algorithms To demonstrate the working of page rank, consider a hypothetical web structure as shown below: Figure showing a web graph having three web pages i.e. A, B, C, D Page Rank (By Brin Page) Using equation 2, the ranks for pages A, B, C are calculated as follows: (1) (2) (3) (4) Having value d=0.25, 0.5, 0.85, the page ranks of pages A, B and C become: Dampening Factor PR(A) PR(B) PR(C) PR(D) 0.25 0.9 0.975 1.22 0.99 0.5 0.8 0.9 1.35 0.95 0.85 0.85 0.829 1.53 0.357 From the results, it is concluded that PR(C)> PR(D)> PR(B)> PR(A) 2. Iterative Method of Page Rank It is easy to solve the equation system, to determine page rank values, for a small set of pages, but the web consists of billions of documents and it is not possible to find a solution by inspection method. In iterative calculation, each page is assigned a starting page rank value of 1 as shown in table 1 below. These rank values are iteratively substituted in page rank equations to find the final values. In general, many iterations could be followed to normalize the page ranks. d=0.25 d=0.5 d=0.85 Iteration PR(A) PR(B) PR(C) PR(D) PR(A) PR(B) PR(C) PR(D) PR(A) PR(B) PR(C) PR(D) 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.25 1 1 1 1.5 1 1 0.5 1.425 0.575 2 0.875 0.97 1.21 0.99 0.875 0.94 1.44 0.97 0.75 0.788 1.46 0.82 3 0.90 0.975 1.22 0.99 0.86 0.93 1.4 0.965 0.77 0.80 1.48 0.83 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. From the results, it is concluded that PR(C)> PR(D)> PR(B)> PR(A) 3. Page Rank with Visits of Links (VOL) (Gyanendra Kumar) Using equation 6, the ranks for pages A, B, C are calculated as follows: (A)=(1-d)+d((1) (B)=(1-d)+d((2) (C)=(1-d)+d(+(3) (D)=(1-d)+d((4) The intermediate values can be calculated as: Similarly other values after calculation are: 2/3 Having value d=0.25,0.5, 0.85 the page ranks of pages A, B and C become: Dampening Factor PR(A) PR(B) PR(C) PR(D) 0.25 0.83 0.82 1.23 0.818 0.5 0.635 0.606 0.808 0.6 0.85 0.2478 0.22 0.3449 0.1123 From the results, it is concluded that PR(C)> PR(A)> PR(B)> PR(D) 4. Weighted Page Rank (Wenpu Xing and Ali Ghorbani) Using equation 3, the ranks for pages A, B, C are calculated as follows: (C,A).(1) (2) (3) (4) The weights of incoming as well as well as outgoing links can be calculated as: (C,A)= IA/IA+IC = 1/ 1+2 = 1/3 =OA/OA=1 Having value d=0.5, the page ranks of pages A, B and C become: Dampening Factor PR(A) PR(B) PR(C) PR(D) 0.25 0.8526 0.8210 1.2315 0.75 0.5 0.7059 0.6176 1.235 0.5 0.85 0.3380 0.2458 0.6636 0.15 From the results, it is concluded that PR(C)> PR(A)> PR(B)> PR(D) 5. Weighted Page Rank Based on Visits of Link (VOL) (Neelam Tyagi and Simple Sharma) Using equation 7, the ranks for pages A, B, C are calculated as follows: )(1) )(2) (3) (4) The weights of incoming, number of visits of link as well as total number of visits of all links can be calculated as Having value d=0.25, 0.5 0.85, the page ranks of pages A, B and C become: Dampening Factor PR(A) PR(B) PR(C) PR(D) 0.25 0.8061 0.7836 1.015 0.8153 0.5 05981 0.5498 0.8825 0.5916 0.85 0.1734 0.1735 0.3469 0.1994 From the results, it is concluded that PR(C)> PR(D)> PR(A)> PR(B) 5. Enhancement in Weighted Page Rank Using Visits of Link (VOL) (Sonal Tuteja) Using equation 10, the ranks for pages A, B, C are calculated as follows: (1) (2) (3) Intermediate values can be calculated as follows: =IA/IA=1 =OA/OA=1 Having value d=0.25, 0.5, 0.85 the page ranks of pages A, B and C become: Dampening Factor PR(A) PR(B) PR(C) PR(D) 0.25 0.7226 0.7951 1.029 0.75 0.5 0.9557 0.6195 0.9115 0.5 0.85 1.911 0.5561 1.116 0.15 From the results, it is concluded that PR(C)> PR(B)> PR(D)> PR(A) Comparison chart of various Ranking Algorithms Algorithm Page Rank Page Rank with VOL Weighted Page rank WPRV EWPRV